Biodiversität

Auxotrophy, the inability to produce an organic compound essential for growth, is widespread among bacteria. Auxotrophic bacteria rely on transporters to acquire these compounds from their environment. Here, we study the expression of both low- and high-affinity transporters of the costly amino acid methionine in an auxotrophic lactic acid bacterium, Lactococcus lactis. We show that the high-affinity transporter (Met-transporter) is heterogeneously expressed at low methionine concentrations, resulting in two isogenic subpopulations that sequester methionine in different ways: one subpopulation primarily relies on the high-affinity transporter (high expression of the Met-transporter) and the other subpopulation primarily relies on the low-affinity transporter (low expression of the Met-transporter). The phenotypic heterogeneity is remarkably stable, inherited for tens of generations, and apparent at the colony level. This heterogeneity results from a T-box riboswitch in the promoter region of the met operon encoding the high-affinity Met-transporter. We hypothesize that T-box riboswitches, which are commonly found in the Lactobacillales, may play as-yet unexplored roles in the predominantly auxotrophic lifestyle of these bacteria.

Communities of interacting microorganisms play important roles across all habitats on Earth. These communities typically consist of a large number of species that perform different metabolic processes. The functions of microbial communities ultimately emerge from interactions between these different microorganisms. To understand the dynamics and functions of microbial communities, we thus need to know the nature and strength of these interactions. Here, we quantified the interaction strength between individual cells in microbial communities. We worked with synthetic communities of Escherichia coli bacteria that exchange metabolites to grow. We combined single-cell growth rate measurements with mathematical modelling to quantify metabolic interactions between individual cells and to map the spatial interaction network in these communities. We found that cells only interact with other cells in their immediate neighbourhood. This short interaction range limits the coupling between different species and reduces their ability to perform metabolic processes collectively. Our experiments and models demonstrate that the spatial scale of biotic interaction plays a fundamental role in shaping the ecological dynamics of communities and the functioning of ecosystems.

Immune systems have repeatedly diversified in response to parasite diversity. Many animals have outsourced part of their immune defence to defensive symbionts, which should be affected by similar evolutionary pressures as the host's own immune system. Protective symbionts provide efficient and specific protection and respond to changing selection pressure by parasites. Here we use the aphid Aphis fabae, its protective symbiont Hamiltonella defensa, and its parasitoid Lysiphlebus fabarum to test whether parasite diversity can maintain diversity in protective symbionts. We exposed aphid populations with the same initial symbiont composition to parasitoid populations that differed in their diversity. As expected, single parasitoid genotypes mostly favoured a single symbiont that was most protective against that particular parasitoid, while multiple symbionts persisted in aphids exposed to more diverse parasitoid populations, which in turn affected aphid population density and rates of parasitism. Parasite diversity may be crucial to maintaining symbiont diversity in nature.

Microbial cells in nature live within dense multispecies conglomerates, forming a self-organizing ecosystem. In such assemblies, genotypes interact with each other in a myriad of ways, driving community dynamics and functionalities. The role of interactions between genotypes and their consequences for spatial structure and functional outcomes are being increasingly studied to understand the ecology and evolution of microbial communities. An increasing body of work with simple microbial populations has elucidated that phenotypic variation, that is, differences within isogenic cells can have important consequences for population dynamics and evolution. However, the role of individual level behavioral differences for community level dynamics is relatively unknown. I argue that it is necessary to study phenotypic variation and microscale processes in order to understand the emergence and consequences of interactions within microbial communities. I highlight possible explanations that can explain the emergence of variation in multi-genotypic assemblages and propose possible consequences on community dynamics.

Microorganisms perform multiple metabolic functions that shape the global cycling of elements, health and disease of their host organisms, and biotechnological processes. The rates, at which different metabolic activities are performed by individual cells, can vary between genetically identical cells within clonal populations. While the molecular mechanisms that result in such metabolic heterogeneity have attracted considerable interest, the environmental conditions that shape heterogeneity and its consequences have received attention only in recent years. Here, we review the environmental drivers that lead to metabolic heterogeneity with a focus on nutrient limitation, temporal fluctuations and spatial structure, and the functional consequences of such heterogeneity. We highlight studies using single-cell methods that allow direct investigation of metabolic heterogeneity and discuss the relevance of metabolic heterogeneity in complex microbial communities.