Safe drinking water access is a human right, but data on safely managed drinking water services (SMDWS) is lacking for more than half of the global population. We estimate SMDWS use in 135 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) at subnational levels with a geospatial modeling approach, combining existing household survey data with available global geospatial datasets. We estimate that only one in three people used SMDWS in LMICs in 2020 and identified fecal contamination as the primary limiting factor affecting almost half of the population of LMICs. Our results are relevant for raising awareness about the challenges and limitations of current global monitoring approaches and demonstrating how globally available geospatial data can be leveraged to fill data gaps and identify priority areas in LMICs.

On-site wastewater reuse can improve global access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene. We developed a treatment system (aerated bioreactor, ultrafiltration membrane, granular activated carbon and electrolysis for chlorine disinfection) that recycles hand washing and toilet flush water.
Three prototypes were field-tested in non-sewered areas, one in Switzerland (hand washing) and two in South Africa (hand washing, toilet flushing), over periods of 63, 74 and 94 days, respectively.
We demonstrated that the system is able to recycle sufficient quantities of safe and appealing hand washing and toilet flush water for domestic or public use in real-life applications. Chemical contaminants were effectively removed from the used water in all prototypes. Removal efficiencies were 99.7% for the chemical oxygen demand (COD), 98.5% for total nitrogen (TN) and 99.9% for phosphate in a prototype treating hand washing water, and 99.8% for COD, 95.7% for TN and 89.6% for phosphate in a prototype treating toilet flush water. While this system allowed for true recycling for the same application, most on-site wastewater reuse systems downcycle the treated water, i.e., reuse it for an application requiring lower water quality. An analysis of 18 selected wastewater reuse specifications revealed that at best these guidelines are only partially applicable to innovative recycling systems as they are focused on the downcycling of water to the environment (e.g., use for irrigation). We believe that a paradigm shift is necessary and advocate for the implementation of risk-based (and thus end-use dependent) system performance targets to evaluate water treatment systems, which recycle and not only downcycle water.

We present the results of three field tests and three laboratory tests of a new physical-chemical urine treatment system, which can recover all nutrients, while pathogens are inactivated. The system consists of two steps. In the first reactor, biological processes including urea hydrolysis are prevented by mixing fresh urine with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂). Due to the high pH value and the high availability of calcium, phosphate can be recovered by precipitation. The high pH value also fosters the inactivation of microorganisms, including pathogens. In the second reactor, water is evaporated at low energy consumption by blowing unheated ambient air over the stabilized urine. Stabilization in the first reactor was successful in all field and laboratory tests. The pH value remained between 12 and 13, except for short dips due to shortages of Ca(OH)₂. Nearly all phosphorus (92-96%) precipitated and could be recovered as calcium phosphate in the first reactor, while nitrogen and potassium overflowed with the urine into the evaporation reactor. The efficiency of the second treatment step was very different for field and laboratory experiments and depended on the duration of the experiment. During a four-day laboratory test, nitrogen recovery was 98%. In contrast, nitrogen recovery was only around 20% in the long-term field experiments. The high nitrogen losses occurred, because biological urea hydrolysis was not inhibited anymore, when the pH value in the second reactor decreased due to the dissolution of high amounts of carbon dioxide from the ambient air. Potassium was not subject to any significant loss, and the measured recovery in the solid evaporation product was 98%. Evaporation rates ranged between 50 g m^-2 h^-1 (RH = 82±13%, T = 12±6°C) and 130 g m^-2 h^-1 (RH = 60±19%, T = 24±5°C) in the three field tests. Apart from some disturbances due to low supply of Ca(OH)₂, the urine module functioned without any substantial failures and was simple to maintain. The minimum consumption of Ca(OH)₂ at full capacity was 6 g·L^-1 urine and the electricity demand was 150 Wh kg^-1 water evaporated from urine, resulting in operational costs of 0.05 EUR pers^-1 d^-1.