Abteilung Siedlungshygiene und Wasser für Entwicklung

Strategien zur Verringerung der Rekontamination von behandeltem Wasser während Transport und Aufbewahrung

Unter hygische schwierigen Bedingungen kann Wasser, das an der Quelle oder am Brunnen sauber zur Verfügung gestellt wird während dem Transport oder der Aufbewahrung wieder verkeimt werden. Die Verfügbarkeit von Produkten und Ansätzen zur Verringerung dieser Rekontaminationsrisiken ist von großer Bedeutung, um sicheres Wasser am Ort des Verbrauchs zu gewährleisten. Sauberes Trinkwasser ist ein entscheidender Indikator für die Erreichung des SDG 6.1. Um einen Beitrag zur Erreichung dieses Ziels zu leisten, experimentieren wir mit verschiedenen Ansätzen zur Verbesserung der sicheren Aufbewahrung des Trinkwasser. Methoden, die wir evaluieren, um das Wiederverkeimungsrisiko zu reduzieren sind z. B. die Sekundärdesinfektion mit UV-C-LEDs, die in die Lagerbehälter integriert wurden oder die Installation von kostengünstigen passiven Chlorierungssystemen in die Trinkwasserversorgung. Ausserdem testen wir verbesserte, reinigungsfreundlichere Designs für Behälter, die verwendet werden für den Transport und die Aufbewahrung von Trinkwasser, und angepasste Reinigungstrategien.

Einfluss von Behälterdesign und Reinigung auf die Verringerung des Rekontaminationsrisikos

Trinkwasser wird während des Transports und der Lagerung häufig rekontaminiert, wenn Wasser in verschmutzte Wasserbehälter gefüllt wird. Die Konstruktion des Behälters wirkt sich auf die Wasserqualität aus. Die Behälter werden oft ebenerdig aufbewahrt, so dass sie für Kinder und Tiere leicht zugänglich sind, was den Eintrag von Krankheitserregern in die Gefässe begünstig und ein Grund für die Verschlechterung der Wasserqualität sein kann. Daher ist es wichtig, die Behälter mit Deckeln zu versehen und sie erhöht zu lagern. Während der Entnahme wird das Wasser oft durch den Kontakt mit verschmutzten Händen, Tassen und Schöpflöffeln verdorben. Der Kontakt zwischen den Händen und dem Wasser im Container kann durch den Einbau eines Ausgusses zur Wasserentnahme aus den Behältern verhindert werden.

Behälter mit engen Öffnungen verhindern den Kontakt mit möglichen Kontaminationsquellen und verringern damit das Rekontaminationsrisiko, erschweren aber auch die systematische Reinigung der Behälterinnenwände. Die regelmäßige Verwendung von Trinkwasserbehältern ohne ordnungsgemäße Reinigung führt zur Bildung eines Biofilms im Behälter. Dieser Biofilm beherbergt Bakterienkolonien, bietet ihnen Nahrung für ihr Wachstum, schützt sie vor der Desinfektion und verbraucht freies Restchlor, wodurch das Risiko einer Verunreinigung des Wassers, das in die Behälter gefüllt wird, steigt.

In diesem Projekt arbeiten wir mit der lokalen Bevölkerung, lokalen Nichtregierungsorganisationen in Uganda und Kenia sowie mit der Zürcher Hochschule der Künste zusammen. Das Ziel der Zusammenarbeit ist, die Wirkung der Sekundärdesinfektion in Kombination mit optimal designten Wasserbehältern auf die Wasserqualität zu bewerten.

Passive Chlorierung im Trinkwasserversorgungssystem

In diesem Projekt arbeiten wir mit der lokalen Bevölkerung und den Nichtregierungsorganisationen Get Water Uganda, Helvetas Swiss Intercooperation in Nepal und Sandec's Water Supply and Treatment Goup zusammen, um folgende Themen zu evaluieren:

a) die technische Leistung verschiedener kostengünstiger Designs von nichtelektrisch betriebenen Chlorierungsanlagen für Trinkwasserversorgungssysteme auf Systemebene (Konsistenz der Dosierung, Haltbarkeit des Produkts, Betriebs- und Wartungsanforderungen, Wasserqualität),

b) Geschäftsmodell für den Betrieb solcher Anlagen (anfängliche und wiederkehrende Kosten, Modelle zur Erzielung von Einnahmen im Hinblick auf verschiedene Interessengruppen, Managementkonzepte, Verfügbarkeit von Produkten und Ersatzteilen)

c) Nutzerperspektiven (Akzeptanz, Geschmackswahrnehmung und Bereitschaft, für zusätzliche Kosten zu zahlen)

d) Evaluation von passiver Chlorierung in Trinkwasserversorgungssystemen im Vergleich zu Trinkwasserbehandlung im Haushalt und Auswirkung auf die konsumierte  Trinkwasserqualität und auf die Gesundheit von Kindern

Publikationen

Rekontamination und Aufbewahrung

Keeping water from kiosks clean: strategies for reducing recontamination during transport and storage in Eastern Uganda

Drinking water is frequently recontaminated during transport and storage when water is poured into jerrycans. To address this issue, three strategies aiming at reducing these recontamination risks were implemented at water kiosks in Eastern Uganda. In all three strategies, water at the kiosks was chlorinated to a free residual chlorine (FRC) concentration of 2 mg/L at the tap of the kiosk. In addition, water was collected in different containers for drinking water transport: a) uncleaned jerrycans, b) cleaned jerrycans, and c) cleaned improved containers with a wide mouth and a spigot. Water quality in the containers was compared to that of a control group collecting unchlorinated water in uncleaned jerrycans. Water samples were collected at the tap of the kiosk, from the containers of 135 households after they were filled at the tap, and from the same containers in the households after 24 h of water storage. The samples were analysed for counts of E. coli, total coliforms, and FRC. Household interviews and structured observations were conducted to identify confounding variables and to assess the influence of water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructure and practices on recontamination.
All three intervention strategies contributed to significantly lower E. coli recontamination levels after 24 h than in the control group (Median (Mdn) = 9 CFU/100 mL, Interquartile Range (IQR) = 25). Median E. coli counts and mean FRC consumption were higher in uncleaned jerrycans (Median = 1 CFU/100 mL, IQR = 6, ΔFRC = 1.8 mg/L) than in cleaned jerrycans (Median = 0 CFU/100 mL IQR = 2, ΔFRC = 1.6 mg/L) and the lowest in cleaned improved containers (Median = 0 CFU/100 mL, IQR = 0, ΔFRC = 1.2 mg/L). The FRC concentration at the tap of 2 mg/L was too low to protect water from E. coli recontamination in uncleaned jerrycans over 24 h. Cleaning the jerrycans was inconvenient due to their small openings, therefore, sand was used. The cleaning with sand reduced recontamination with E. coli but did not reduce the count of total coliforms. Improved containers with a larger opening allowed for cleaning with a brush and showed the lowest levels of recontamination for both E. coli and total coliforms. In addition to the intervention strategies, households receiving a higher number of WASH education visits within the previous year had lower recontamination levels of E. coli in stored water (OR = 0.54, p = .003).
Gärtner, N.; Germann, L.; Wanyama, K.; Ouma, H.; Meierhofer, R. (2021) Keeping water from kiosks clean: strategies for reducing recontamination during transport and storage in Eastern Uganda, Water Research X, 10, 100079 (8 pp.), doi:10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100079, Institutional Repository

Influence of container cleanliness, container disinfection with chlorine, and container handling on recontamination of water collected from a water kiosk in a Kenyan slum

The study assessed whether using clean containers that had been disinfected with chlorine at a water kiosk in the Kangemi slum in Nairobi reduced recontamination of treated water during drinking transport and storage. At the same time, the impacts of container handling and hygiene conditions at the household level on water quality changes during storage were evaluated. Data were collected during interviews with 135 households using either new, clean Maji Safi containers (MSCs) that had been disinfected with chlorine or normal uncleaned jerrycans (NJCs). Bacteriological water quality and free chlorine levels in both types of containers were measured after container filling at the kiosk and in the same containers after 24 h storage in households. The use of MSCs significantly reduced the risk of recontaminating the treated water. After water filling at the kiosk, none of the MSCs contained Escherichia coli bacteria, and 2.8% were contaminated after 24 h storage. In contrast, 6.2% of NJCs were contaminated after filling, and 15.2% after 24 h storage. Multivariate logistic regression indicated that the use of a clean water container and sufficient chlorine and the frequency of cleaning the container in the household mitigated recontamination. We suggest further investigation of water container designs that facilitate cleaning.
Meierhofer, R.; Wietlisbach, B.; Matiko, C. (2019) Influence of container cleanliness, container disinfection with chlorine, and container handling on recontamination of water collected from a water kiosk in a Kenyan slum, Journal of Water and Health, 17(2), 308-317, doi:10.2166/wh.2019.282, Institutional Repository

Does activated silver reduce recontamination risks in the reservoirs of ceramic water filters?

Efforts to provide safe water are challenged by recontamination and regrowth of pathogens in treated water during storage. This study evaluated the potential of metallic silver with a chemically etched surface to reduce recontamination risks during water storage in ceramic water filters. Batch experiments were conducted in the laboratory with water storage buckets containing three configurations of varying amounts of silver. Field trials in a rural area in Kenya assessed the effect of the same configurations in the storage buckets of locally produced ceramic pot filters without colloidal silver coating. The tests revealed that the etched silver slightly reduced microbiological recontamination risks during water storage despite the low diffusion of silver ions (<5 µg Ag/L). The effect was strongly influenced by water chemistry parameters. A statistically significant difference in the removal of E. coli (Δ Log Removal Value (LRV) = 0.6) and total coliforms (Δ LRV = 1.7) was found between households using a filter with silver in the water reservoir and those using a filter without silver. Multivariate regression of water handling factors and hygiene practices on filter performance revealed that the presence of silver in the reservoir and cleaning the filter element with a brush were associated with a better filter performance.
Meierhofer, R.; Rubli, P.; Oremo, J.; Odhiambo, A. (2019) Does activated silver reduce recontamination risks in the reservoirs of ceramic water filters?, Water, 11(5), 1108 (11 pp.), doi:10.3390/w11051108, Institutional Repository

From water source to tap of ceramic filters - factors that influence water quality between collection and consumption in rural households in Nepal

The study assessed changes in water quality between the water source and the tap of locally produced low cost ceramic water filters used by a community living in hygienically critical conditions in a remote mountainous area in Western Nepal. Data was collected from 42 rural households during two visits. The effectiveness of filter handling on its performance was assessed through microbiological analysis, structured household interviews and structured observations. Water quality decreased significantly when source water was filled into transport containers, while the use of the filters improved drinking water quality for about 40% of the households. Highly inadequate filter cleaning practices involving the use of contaminated raw water, hands (geo mean = 110 E. coli CFU/100 mL) and cleaning tools (geo mean = 80 E. coli CFU/100 mL) stained hygienic parts of the filter. The use of boiling water to disinfect the filters was significantly correlated with improved filter performance and should be further promoted. However, even disinfected filters achieved a very low average LRV for E. coli of 0.4 in the field and performed worse than during laboratory tests (LRV for E. coli of 1.5-2). Comprehensive training on adequate filter handling, as well as better filter products, are required to improve the impact of filter use.
Meierhofer, R.; Bänziger, C.; Deppeler, S.; Kunwar, B. M.; Bhatta, M. (2018) From water source to tap of ceramic filters - factors that influence water quality between collection and consumption in rural households in Nepal, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11), 2439 (14 pp.), doi:10.3390/ijerph15112439, Institutional Repository

Passive Chlorierung

Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda

Recontamination during transport and storage is a common challenge of water supply in low-income settings, especially if water is collected manually. Chlorination is a strategy to reduce recontamination. We assessed seven low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices in gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) kiosks in eastern Uganda: one floater, two in-line dosers, three end-line dosers (tap-attached), and one manual dispenser. The evaluation criteria were dosing consistency, user-friendliness, ease of maintenance, local supply chain, and cost. Achieving an adequate chlorine dosage (∼2 mg/L at the tap and ≥ 0.2 mg/L after 24 h of storage in a container) was challenging. The T-chlorinator was the most promising option for GDM kiosks: it achieved correct dosage (CD, 1.5-2.5 mg/L) with a probability of 90 per cent, was easy to use and maintain, economical, and can be made from locally available materials. The other in-line option, the chlorine-dosing bucket (40 per cent CD) still needs design improvements. The end-line options AkvoTur (67 per cent CD) and AquatabsFlo® (57 per cent CD) are easy to install and operate at the tap, but can be easily damaged in the GDM set-up. The Venturi doser (52 per cent CD) did not perform satisfactorily with flow rates > 6 L/min. The chlorine dispenser (52 per cent CD) was robust and user-friendly, but can only be recommended if users comply with chlorinating the water themselves. Establishing a sustainable supply chain for chlorine products was challenging. Where solid chlorine tablets were locally rarely available, the costs of liquid chlorine options were high (27-162 per cent of the water price).
Dössegger, L.; Tournefier, A.; Germann, L.; Gärtner, N.; Huonder, T.; Etenu, C.; Wanyama, K.; Ouma, H.; Meierhofer, R. (2021) Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda, Waterlines, 40(2), 92-106, doi:10.3362/1756-3488.20-00014, Institutional Repository